Odyssey Magazine #01
05 марта 1997 |
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History - The classification of hackers.
Igor Moiseenko article is reprinted with the reduction of Journal Computerra " No # 43 (170) Music by Shov Analogue of the English word "hacker" in the Russian language there. The closest related - Prikolschik "that is, a person who is capable of Nonsense (English - Khaki). And the more wittier and subtle joke, the more this person a hacker. And who the most generous in the fun? That's right, students. Young Americans who studied at Caltech in the early sixties, understood by hack or some very smart or very Bizarre acts committed using a computer or without it. The second most important source and part of the hacking was phreakers (or freaks). Fame frikerstvo received after the appearance in 1972 magazine "Esquire" article about the success of Captain Crunch (Cap'n Crunch) - "father frikerstva. Under that name was hiding, John T. Draper - the inventor of the generator, which is modeled commanding tones of telephone lines and allowed its creator Swan's free. Let's go back a little back and talk about the history of the emergence of hacking. A magic wand that turned volatile mix of students with frikerstvom in Genie on behalf of the attacker, was a computer. For the first time the term "hacking" for in activities related to computers, appeared in the late 50's. Various sources agree that the birthplace this term is more likely to can be regarded as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), one of the first to obtain the most Computer. At that time, computers were produced single samples, were very expensive, were huge and slow (on today's standards), and the prospects of their application seemed rather vague. Limited capacity of the computer and lack of allocated computing time led to a separation of students into those who was a computer on the "you", and those for whom she and left the thing in itself. First, following best student traditions, began to help the second, causing them sacred awe and respect. The highest expression appreciation was the second assignment the first honorary among students rank hackers. In this context, the attacker meant unorthodox, talented programmer. Among hackers, there were certain standards and views on the relationship with colleagues. So, for example, was not considered unethical to make changes to the program, written by a comrade to bring it to perfection (in their own understanding), or learn from the more talented colleagues. In this case, no one cares about own priorities in the invention of the or other original techniques or solutions, no one stole the program to selling them, no one insisted on the observance of copyright law and did not try to conceal their products. There is nothing surprising in such a relationship was not: ordinary student fraternity was its new incarnation, in addition, work was basically a collective built on trust. These rules of conduct embodied in the kind of ethical code hacker, also attributed to the students at MIT. Code more or less fully presented by Stephen Levy in his book "Hackers", published in 1984 year. Here is a brief of its main provisions: 1. Computers - a tool for the masses. They should not belong only to the wealthy and used only for their benefit. 2. Information belongs to everyone. The main task - to create and distribute knowledge, rather than keep them secret. 3. The code - common property. Good code should use all bad code should be corrected. Programs should not be protected by copyright or be supplied with copy protection. 4. Programming - is an art. Perfection is achieved when program that performs its function only takes a few lines, when one program does what it can not do another, when some programs may intrude into the other, when the program can manipulate files in ways previously thought impossible. Perfect program, the individual techniques programming algorithms can be successful to be collectible and reverence. 5. Computer - a living organism. For computer needs care, they should be cherished. In his book on social Challenges of Cyberspace, journalists Katie Hafner and John Markof wrote about times of the early hacking: "In the 60's and 70's meant to be a computer hacker around the same as in the Middle Ages - Be numbered with the knightly order. Awarded the title of hacker intellectually restless soul seeking improve any program as long as it will be impossible to improve on. This meant dedication to computers that to the uninitiated seem fanatical, but is the essence of the then hacking. " Thus, even at the dawn of the hacking clearly defining its characteristics. First of all, computer hacking - a constant process of learning about the world through the prism of computer technology, and ideally - is process for the sake of the process ("the purpose - nothing motion - all "). Negative phenomena accompanying hacking (for example, the disclosure of confidential information, industrial espionage and the like), to the true hacking relations do not have. Consequently, the "apostates", having lost the true path to slippery slope of personal benefits, automatically lose their right to be called hackers how brilliant they are. So little or so have seen all the dawn computer revolution. I fully share this view and believe the only correct interpretation is a the concept of "hacking". So humiliating position in which hacking (partly his own fault, but a much greater extent due to activities of other forces) was present. Hacking has evolved along with the improvement of computer technology; its magnitude increases in proportion expansion of the use of computers. It would be better to say that progress of the computer industry and the evolution of hacking - are closely related and even interdependent processes. Very popular among experts is the point of view that the hackers are unless the engine computer progress, so one of the most significant its components. Moreover, many American experts argue that all U.S. success in the development of computing and software-only by hackers. Even try to substantiate the claim that all the successes of the U.S. development of computer technology related to householder. In the proof is given the fact that successful programs, widespread, - Wordstar, Lotus 1-2-3, Visicalc - developed by individuals or small groups of programmers. But the programs created by large groups (Visi-on, Jazz), okazalis unsuccessful and led to the bankruptcy of firms-developers. And remember the computer donated by the world Wozniak and Jobs, in the fact that neither a hacker age! It is known that PC was not the brainchild of IBM, Sperry and Burroughs. Microprocessors, which were based first personalki, designed for industrial robots, aircraft landing gear, traffic lights, etc. And that hackers figured out that the union of these microprocessors to memory chips forms computer, which can be assembled at home. Similarly we can show that Many major computer ideas - an interactive interface, communication through telephone channels, BBS, network and even Internet - were the product of imagination and the needs of hackers. Not without reason, and the assertion that hackers are actually involved in the testing of computer systems, identifying their weaknesses. For example, a classic computer hack of the systems people are from Motorola, which in the mid 70's found flaws in the operating system CP-V Company Xerox, allows to intercept management. Following the tradition of hacking, they reported it to developers. However, they did not react to this gesture. For which he paid, because the hacker spirit tolerate imperfection program and indifference could not. Wrote two little program codenamed "Robin Hood" and "Friar Tuck" which, when put into Xerox, have made quite a stir, restarting each other again, and "talking" together with the operator's console. And what do you think? CP-V was urgently finalized! With improvement of computers prospects for their use becomes clearer. The first value of computers understood, scientists and military representatives business, and then society as a whole. In the early 80's attention received another "computer" phenomenon - computer crime. Statistics of such crimes is from 1958. Then below them were meant cases damage and theft of computer equipment, theft of information; fraud or theft of money, committed with the use computers; unauthorized use of computers or theft of computer time. Records were kept at the Stanford Research Institute and long time no great interest. Incidentally, in 1966, the computer was first used as a instrument for bank robbery. It happened in Minnesota. In 1968, all United States were reported 13 crimes, in 1978 - 85, and in 1979 the institute has stopped conducting and publishing statistics, given the complexity of determining the reliability of the events, whose number was growing rapidly. It is absurd to equate computer crime and hacking. But that is exactly what has been done. Attendants Themis, faced with the need to something to do with a new type of crime, Without going into details of new technologies, put the question squarely: "Who's there with us able to gain unauthorized access to computer systems and due to this to commit crimes? Hackers? So they all to blame! "It will take a long time before the specialists do not point to the fact that receiving unauthorized access and use it for criminal purposes - not the same thing. Inability (or unwillingness) to thoroughly understand the essence of the events played once with a U.S. lawyer a very bad joke. This story, known called the Great satellite hop has become a shining example of how the blind adherence to conventional wisdom puts serious and respected people in an extremely awkward position. What is happening in following: in July 1985, Attorney New Jersey has announced the court that he has proof that the group local hackers can change the orbit space satellites. His words immediately hit the newspapers and television news around the world, and pseudoscientific comments even accompanied by a schedule that shows how hackers could operate the spacecraft. But the truth was simpler. In fact, really one of federal agents did not understand contents of several files on the BBS and decided revealed that a secret organization, with more in their ranks more than 600 people, and found in the phone address NASA, served as the basis for charges hackers in an attempt to secret intervention in the U.S. space program. The investigation continues for several months, but the evidence certainly could not collect. The confiscated equipment was returned, and was recognized as a sysop guilty to the manufacture of the similarity of predatory tool - a small program for Applecat-modem. Court of New Jersey, to its credit, has concluded that BBS contain material not unlike a certain kind of books and magazines for teenagers, or fallen into Childhood persons. Alas, this incident, the relationship of lawyers with hackers have not been exhausted. Undoubtedly, case with the Great satellite hop has become One of the reasons for the adoption of the following, 1986, the year of the famous Act of abuse and fraud using computers. Thus the American Themis marked their positions, standing on that She intends to talk with newly appeared fraudulent, and in their Isla and hackers. The case did not wait. Nov. 2 In 1988 there was an event called specialists from the largest ever breach of security of U.S. computer systems. 23-year-old a graduate student at Cornell Robert Tappan Morris University has launched a computer network ARPAnet program is a rare type of computer viruses, the so-called "worms." As a result of the attack was completely or partially blocked several national networks. Among them - CSnet, NSFnet, BITnet, already referred to ARPAnet and its military component of the unclassified Milnet. Total one way or another affected approximately 6,200 computer systems including systems of major universities, government laboratories, private companies, military bases, hospitals, NASA, the agency national security, etc. Total damage reached by some estimates 100 million dollarov.Eta full of drama History discussed so far and is a classic example of what can happen if neglected issues information security. By an irony the fate of his father Robert Morris at the time was chief supervisor of the National Center for computer security. "Virus" Morris has been a difficult 60-KB program that can open passwords, and masquerade as legitimate users of the problem. Specialists netralizovavshie and disassemble the program, unanimously noted the outstanding Morris skill as a programmer and exceptional knowledge of the target architecture networks. During the trial it became clear that the "virus" was conceived and developed as isledovatelskoy work, and if not for an unfortunate mistake in the mechanism of reproduction, then the incident would not happened. Conclusively proved that the defendant had no criminal intent. The goal was not blocking network, and identify the extent of the global network infrastructure. The impact of this incident on the development of computer industry and hacking hard overestimated. So, at the suggestion of the Pentagon group has been established experts in the field of computers (the famous CERT - Computer Emergency Responce Team), which would be capable of emergency quickly take appropriate measures. But most importantly - the world saw how dangerous not prepared carefully Experiments with computer systems. Attitude towards hackers changed - and not for the better. In spring and summer 1990, the U.S. seized by something like a hacker hysteria: It was conducted over thirty raids against computer users, and a few months followed by a second wave of search and arrest. More than 150 federal agents were sent to New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Phoenix and a dozen other cities countries to eliminate the alleged criminal organization allegedly engaged in the illegal penetration into the corporate mainframe, software theft, unauthorized use of credit card numbers and codes, telephone, and manipulation of computer records in ekstennoy with gospitolyami and police. The reason for the investigation served as a "huge wave of complaints," business people and organizations whose information systems were attacked. Was searched 40 homes and businesses confiscated 273,000 floppy disks, 42 microcomputer, not to mention modems, answering machines, telephones, faxes and even a stereo and a soldering iron. Each search is usually performed six armed agents, in one of such cases had been wounded teenager who hid from the shower. This operation was affectionate name - "Sunshine". So what? Nothing. Was arrested all four suspects, Two of them - for possession of weapons and drugs. In the end, the government accused of violating federal law 1986 Computer Fraud and abuse of a 19-year Neudorf Craig (Craig Neidorf), which got access to the telephone company Bell South, covering nine states; copied a program serving 911 (Ambulance), edit it and put in hacker e-newsletter "Phreack", which was co-editor. In the aggregate Neudorf could get 65 years in prison and more than a million dollars fine. However, the charge was withdrawn shortly after the defense proved that published information could be obtained from other sources. Such a result, we have zilch, caused, however, a number of speeches in defense of the hackers. Among the speakers were very well-known person, for example, oosnovatel Apple Computer, Steve Wozniak and founder of Lotus, Jim Manzi. These people knew full well what they say. Therefore, does not seem unfounded their fears that the legislation and legal initiatives may take prohibitive, able to stifle cyberspace. Continued in the next issue.
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