History - The classification of hackers.

<b>History</b> - The classification of hackers.
  Igor Moiseenko
 article is reprinted
 with the reduction of
 Journal Computerra "
 No # 43 (170)


 Music by Shov



   Analogue of the English word "hacker" in the
Russian language there. The closest related
- Prikolschik "that is, a person who is capable of Nonsense 
(English - Khaki). And the more wittier and subtle joke, the 
more this person a hacker. And who the most generous in the 
fun? That's right, students. Young Americans who studied at 
Caltech in the early sixties, understood by hack or some very 
smart or very Bizarre acts committed using a computer or 
without it.  The second most important source and part of the 
hacking was phreakers (or freaks). Fame frikerstvo

received after the appearance in 1972
magazine "Esquire" article about the success of Captain Crunch 
(Cap'n Crunch) - "father frikerstva. Under that name was 
hiding, John T. Draper - the inventor of the generator, which 
is modeled commanding tones of telephone lines and allowed its 
creator Swan's free.



   Let's go back a little back and talk about the history of 
the emergence of hacking. 


   A magic wand that turned volatile mix of students with 
frikerstvom in Genie on behalf of the attacker, was a computer.

For the first time the term "hacking" for
in activities related to computers,
appeared in the late 50's. Various sources
agree that the birthplace
this term is more likely to
can be regarded as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology 
(MIT), one of the first to obtain the most

Computer. At that time, computers were produced
single samples, were very expensive, were huge and slow (on
today's standards), and the prospects of their application 
seemed rather vague. Limited capacity of the computer and lack 
of allocated computing time led to a separation of students 
into those who was a computer on the "you", and those for whom 
she and left the thing in itself. First, following

best student traditions, began to help the second, causing them 
sacred awe and respect. The highest expression

appreciation was the second assignment
the first honorary among students
rank hackers. In this context, the attacker
meant unorthodox, talented
programmer.
 Among hackers, there were certain
standards and views on the relationship with
colleagues. So, for example, was not considered
unethical to make changes to the program,
written by a comrade to bring it
to perfection (in their own understanding), or learn from the 
more talented colleagues. In this case, no one cares about

own priorities in the invention of the
or other original techniques or solutions, no one stole the 
program to selling them, no one insisted on the observance of 
copyright law and did not try to conceal their products. There 
is nothing surprising in such a relationship was not: ordinary 
student fraternity was its new incarnation, in addition, work

was basically a collective built
on trust.
 These rules of conduct embodied in the
kind of ethical code hacker, also attributed to the students at 
MIT. Code more or less fully presented by Stephen

Levy in his book "Hackers", published in 1984
year. Here is a brief of its main provisions:

   1. Computers - a tool for the masses.
They should not belong only to the wealthy
and used only for their benefit.

   2. Information belongs to everyone. The main task - to 
create and distribute knowledge, rather than keep them secret.


   3. The code - common property.
Good code should use all
bad code should be corrected. Programs should not be protected 
by copyright or be supplied with copy protection. 

   4. Programming - is an art.
Perfection is achieved when
program that performs its function only takes a few lines, when 
one program does what it can not do

another, when some programs may intrude into the other, when 
the program can manipulate files in ways previously thought 
impossible. Perfect program, the individual techniques 
programming algorithms can be successful to be collectible and 
reverence. 

   5. Computer - a living organism. For
computer needs care, they should be cherished.

   In his book on social
Challenges of Cyberspace, journalists
Katie Hafner and John Markof wrote about
times of the early hacking:
 "In the 60's and 70's meant to be a computer hacker around the 
same as in the Middle Ages - Be numbered with the knightly 
order. Awarded the title of hacker intellectually restless soul 
seeking improve any program as long as it will be impossible to 
improve on. This meant dedication to computers that to the 
uninitiated seem fanatical, but is the essence of the then 
hacking. "  Thus, even at the dawn of the hacking

clearly defining its characteristics. First of all, computer 
hacking - a constant process of learning about the world 
through the prism of computer technology, and ideally - is 
process for the sake of the process ("the purpose - nothing 
motion - all "). Negative phenomena accompanying hacking (for 
example, the disclosure of confidential information, industrial 
espionage and the like), to the true hacking relations do not 
have. Consequently, the "apostates", having lost the true path 
to slippery slope of personal benefits, automatically lose 
their right to be called hackers how brilliant they are.


   So little or so have seen all the dawn
computer revolution. I fully share this view and believe
the only correct interpretation is a
the concept of "hacking". So humiliating position in which 
hacking (partly his own fault, but a much greater extent due to 
activities of other forces) was present.  Hacking has evolved 
along with the improvement of computer technology; its 
magnitude increases in proportion expansion of the use of 
computers. It would be better to say that progress of the 
computer industry and the evolution of hacking - are closely 
related and even interdependent processes. Very popular among 
experts is the point of view that the hackers are unless the 
engine computer progress, so one of the most significant its 
components. Moreover, many American experts argue that all U.S. 
success in the development of computing and software-only by 
hackers. Even try to substantiate the claim that all the 
successes of the U.S. development of computer technology 
related to householder. In the proof is given

the fact that successful programs, widespread, - Wordstar,
Lotus 1-2-3, Visicalc - developed by individuals or small 
groups of programmers. But the programs created by large groups 
(Visi-on, Jazz), okazalis unsuccessful and led to the 
bankruptcy of firms-developers.  And remember the computer 
donated by the world Wozniak and Jobs, in the fact that neither

a hacker age! It is known that PC
was not the brainchild of IBM, Sperry and Burroughs.
Microprocessors, which were based
first personalki, designed for
industrial robots, aircraft landing gear,
traffic lights, etc. And that hackers figured out that the 
union of these microprocessors to memory chips forms computer, 
which can be assembled at home.  Similarly we can show that

Many major computer ideas - an interactive interface, 
communication through telephone channels, BBS, network and even 
Internet - were the product of imagination and the needs of 
hackers.  Not without reason, and the assertion that

hackers are actually involved in the testing of computer 
systems, identifying their weaknesses. For example, a classic 
computer hack of the systems people are from Motorola, which in 
the mid 70's found flaws in the operating system CP-V Company 
Xerox, allows to intercept management. Following the tradition 
of hacking, they reported it to developers. However, they did 
not react to this gesture. For which he paid, because the 
hacker spirit tolerate imperfection program and indifference 
could not. Wrote two little program codenamed "Robin Hood" and 
"Friar Tuck" which, when put into Xerox, have made quite a 
stir, restarting each other again, and "talking"

together with the operator's console. And what do you think? 
CP-V was urgently finalized!


   With improvement of computers
prospects for their use becomes
clearer. The first value of computers
understood, scientists and military representatives
business, and then society as a whole.

   In the early 80's attention
received another "computer" phenomenon -
computer crime. Statistics of such crimes is from 1958.
Then below them were meant cases
damage and theft of computer equipment, theft of information; 
fraud or theft of money, committed with the use

computers; unauthorized use of computers or theft of computer 
time. Records were kept at the Stanford Research Institute and 
long time no great interest. Incidentally, in 1966, the 
computer was first used as a

instrument for bank robbery. It happened in Minnesota. In 1968, 
all United States were reported

13 crimes, in 1978 - 85, and in 1979
the institute has stopped conducting and publishing statistics, 
given the complexity of determining the reliability of the 
events, whose number was growing rapidly.  It is absurd to 
equate computer crime and hacking.

But that is exactly what has been done. Attendants
Themis, faced with the need to
something to do with a new type of crime,
Without going into details of new technologies,
put the question squarely: "Who's there with us
able to gain unauthorized access
to computer systems and due to this
to commit crimes? Hackers? So they
all to blame! "It will take a long time before the specialists 
do not point to the fact that receiving unauthorized access and

use it for criminal purposes - not the same thing.
 Inability (or unwillingness) to thoroughly understand the 
essence of the events played once with a U.S. lawyer a very bad 
joke. This story, known called the Great satellite hop has 
become a shining example of how the blind adherence to 
conventional wisdom puts serious and respected people in an 
extremely awkward position. What is happening in following: in 
July 1985, Attorney New Jersey has announced the court that he 
has proof that the group local hackers can change the orbit

space satellites. His words immediately
hit the newspapers and television news
around the world, and pseudoscientific comments even 
accompanied by a schedule that shows how hackers could operate 
the spacecraft.  But the truth was simpler. In fact,

really one of federal agents did not understand
contents of several files on the BBS and decided
revealed that a secret organization, with more in their ranks 
more than 600 people, and found in the phone address

NASA, served as the basis for charges
hackers in an attempt to secret intervention in the
U.S. space program. The investigation continues for several 
months, but the evidence certainly could not collect. The 
confiscated equipment was returned, and was recognized as a 
sysop guilty to the manufacture of the similarity of predatory 
tool - a small program for Applecat-modem. Court of New Jersey, 
to its credit, has concluded that BBS contain material not 
unlike a certain kind of books and magazines for teenagers, or 
fallen into Childhood persons.

 Alas, this incident, the relationship of lawyers with
hackers have not been exhausted. Undoubtedly,
case with the Great satellite hop has become
One of the reasons for the adoption of the following,
1986, the year of the famous Act of abuse and fraud using 
computers. Thus the American Themis marked their positions, 
standing on that She intends to talk with newly appeared 
fraudulent, and in their Isla and hackers.  The case did not 
wait. Nov. 2 In 1988 there was an event called

specialists from the largest ever
breach of security of U.S. computer systems. 23-year-old
a graduate student at Cornell
Robert Tappan Morris University has launched a computer network 
ARPAnet program is a rare type of computer viruses, the 
so-called "worms." As a result of the attack was completely or 
partially blocked several national networks. Among them -

CSnet, NSFnet, BITnet, already referred to ARPAnet and its 
military component of the unclassified Milnet. Total one way or 
another affected approximately 6,200 computer systems including 
systems of major universities, government laboratories, private

companies, military bases, hospitals, NASA, the agency
national security, etc. Total
damage reached by some estimates 100
million dollarov.Eta full of drama
History discussed so far and is
a classic example of what can
happen if neglected issues
information security. By an irony
the fate of his father Robert Morris at the time was chief 
supervisor of the National Center for computer security.  
"Virus" Morris has been a difficult 60-KB program that can open 
passwords, and masquerade as legitimate users of the problem. 
Specialists netralizovavshie and disassemble the program, 
unanimously noted the outstanding Morris skill as a programmer 
and exceptional knowledge of the target architecture networks.

 During the trial it became clear that the "virus" was 
conceived and developed as isledovatelskoy work, and if not for 
an unfortunate mistake in the mechanism of reproduction, then 
the incident would not happened. Conclusively proved that the 
defendant had no criminal intent. The goal was not blocking 
network, and identify the extent of the global network 
infrastructure. 

   The impact of this incident on the development of
computer industry and hacking hard
overestimated. So, at the suggestion of the Pentagon group has 
been established experts in the field of computers (the famous 
CERT - Computer Emergency Responce Team), which would be 
capable of emergency quickly take appropriate measures. But 
most importantly - the world saw how dangerous not prepared 
carefully Experiments with computer systems.

 Attitude towards hackers changed - and not for the better. In 
spring and summer 1990, the U.S. seized by something like a 
hacker hysteria: It was conducted over thirty raids against 
computer users, and a few months

followed by a second wave of search and arrest. More than 150 
federal agents were sent to New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, 
Phoenix and a dozen other cities countries to eliminate the 
alleged criminal organization allegedly engaged in the illegal 
penetration into the corporate mainframe, software theft, 
unauthorized use of credit card numbers and codes, telephone, 
and manipulation of computer records in ekstennoy with 
gospitolyami and police. The reason for the investigation 
served as a "huge wave of complaints," business people and 
organizations whose information systems were attacked. Was 
searched 40 homes and businesses confiscated 273,000 floppy 
disks, 42 microcomputer, not to mention modems, answering 
machines, telephones, faxes and even a stereo and a soldering 
iron. Each search is usually performed

six armed agents, in one of
such cases had been wounded teenager who hid from the shower.
 This operation was affectionate name -
"Sunshine". So what? Nothing. Was
arrested all four suspects,
Two of them - for possession of weapons and drugs. In the end, 
the government accused of violating federal law 1986 Computer 
Fraud and abuse of a 19-year Neudorf Craig (Craig Neidorf), 
which got access to the telephone company Bell South, covering 
nine states; copied a program serving 911 (Ambulance), edit it 
and put in hacker e-newsletter "Phreack", which was co-editor.

In the aggregate Neudorf could get 65
years in prison and more than a million dollars
fine. However, the charge was withdrawn shortly after the 
defense proved that published information could be obtained 
from other sources. 

   Such a result, we have zilch, caused,
however, a number of speeches in defense of the hackers.
Among the speakers were very well-known
person, for example, oosnovatel Apple Computer, Steve Wozniak 
and founder of Lotus, Jim Manzi. These people knew full well 
what they say. Therefore, does not seem unfounded their fears 
that the legislation and legal initiatives may take

prohibitive, able to stifle cyberspace.


     Continued in the next issue.