Micro #12 12 января 1999

Программирование

Machine languages - Programming Languages.

        Programming languages.



  Despite the fact that programming languages ​​today more than 
500, they can be divided into 2 groups: the first consists of 
those languages ​​that allow lay in the car the way solution 
(algorithm), the second group - are logical functional 
languages, which attract attention in connection with research 
in the field of artificial intellekta.K first group includes 
FORTRAN, BASIC, Algol, C, Pascal, etc., to the second Lisp, 
Prolog, Logo and t.d.Pervye representatives of both groups 
appeared simultaneously in 50-e gody.Odnim of the patriarchs 
believe Fortran.Fortran languages ​​(from English. FORmula 
TRANslating System - System events formulas) is aimed at 
solving scientific and engineering problems, was developed by 
IBM in the mid-50's, that defined his osobennosti.V while 
filling the computer was expensive, so the traditional Fortran 
sparingly drawn from memory and there is no possibility of 
indirect adresatsii.On poorly to структурированию.Программисты 
believe this is his nedostatkom.I still in FORTRAN in our 
country write more than 30 years: among the causes of machine

such as IBM and a large number of ready programm.Odna recent 
version - Fortran 8x.Beysik (from the English. Beginner's 
All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code - a universal

symbolic code of instructions for beginners), a direct 
descendant of Fortran and the most popular language 
programmirovaniya.Poyavilsya he 1964 g.Nazvat's difficult, but 
the main credit for his appearance belongs to Americans John 
Kemeny and Thomas Kurtsu.Interpritator the language held in 
memory Computer 80 years no more than 8 kb, and this has 
attracted to not only fans, but professionalov.V Unlike 
Fortran, he treats not only numerical but also the character 
variables, and therefore be more convenient for everyday 
zadach.Prostota BASIC turned difficulty of structuring, as well 
as the inability rekursii.Seychas developed a powerful compiler 
BASIC, which provide a rich vocabulary, high speed and the 
ability to structured programming (konstrkutsiya

WHILE - WEND). Algol (from the English. ALGOrithmic
Language - ALGOL) appeared
almost immediately after Fortrana.Emu inherent
all the features of the algorithmic yazyka.V it
provides an opportunity rekursii.Odnovremenno with the language 
have been developed theoretical criteria: the ability to 
structure, self-documentation and t.d.Prinyato distinguish 
between Algol 60 (completely absent from the I / O) and 
improved Algol 68.No as is often the language late and the 
money spent on IBMovsky Fortran stopped the development of both 
Algola.On and remained the language of teorii.Bolshuyu known 
are the principles laid down in the first Algol.Oni formed the 
basis for PL / 1, Pascal Si.Si (from the English. C - 3rd

letter of the alphabet) was conceived as a tool
for the development of the operating system Unix, which arose 
in the early 70's he godov.Na moment of Cu was the main weapon 
system programmer, it allows you to solve such problems, which 
otherwise would require use Assemblera.Yazyk requires

Programmer high discipline, but dospukaet brief formulirovki.Si 
essentially the core language that is easy to learn, but 
difficult to learn how pisma.Neobhodimye expansion 
opredlyayutsya it as a function of polzovatelya.Na practice any 
system of Cu contains quite an extensive library

functions, which arises from the need to
go программирования.Привлекательная trait Sea - the presence of 
structuring, modularity, defining data types and 
rekursivnost.Prakticheski for each type of computer has at 
least one version of the compiler Si.Mashinnye program 
porazhdaemye compiler, more compact, and satisfied faster than 
those that the compiler generates Pascal, and yet supposedly no 
Cu the best language for beginners

programmista.Pasklal (Pascal - so named
after the famous mathematician Blaise Pascal) was the first 
example of a true language structural programmirovaniya.Odnako 
you often hear reproaches Pascal because of his excessive 
formality and rigid requirements for petty programmistu.Inogda 
Pascal compared with the square kolesom.Modula-2 (from the 
English. Modula-2) - heir apparent Paskalya.Avtor

1 st and 2 nd from Professor Niklaus Wirth
Shveytsarii.V module will appear on traits that
reminiscent of C, allowing
programmer to "look inward" mashiny.Yazyk targeted at the 
organization of parallel processes, which ensures high 
performance of finished programmy.Kobol (from Eng. COmmon 
Business Oriented Language - language oriented to the general 
business) - old language developed for research

economic sfere.Pozvolyaet effectively
work with large amounts of data, rich in a variety of options 
to search, sort and raspredeleniya.O programs in COBOL (base on 
the wide use of English) said that they understood even by 
those who do not speak COBOL, since the texts of the program 
does not require special kommentariyah.Podobnye program called 
самодокументирующимися.Еще one plus its strukturirovannost.K 
drawback is the fact that COBOL can be programmed only the 
simplest algebraic vychisleniya.Dlya engineering

calculations it is not goditsya.Esche one reason that hinders 
the language - the presence of in the U.S. specially created 
branch Committee, the deliberative standards of compliance 
which the following governmental Commission. As it always 
happens in such cases, firms engaged in software not in a hurry

customize your piece to the requirements komissii.PL / 1 (from 
the English. PL / 1 - Programming Language 1 - Programming 
Language 1) - result of the first attempts to create a 
universal language using the popular quality Other 
yazykov.Sozdavalsya it by IBM in early 60's and got the 
features of Fortran, Algol and Kobola.Napominaet great designer 
with lots of detail, so that the user only has to master only 
those part of the language which he neobhodimy.Programmistu 
begin with BASIC is easier to learn PL / 1 than Paskal.Tsel 
that chased language designers identified

its construction - most operators
gromozdki.V general - a living dinosaur in the Babylon of 
languages ​​programmirovaniya.V full volume PL / 1 and has not 
been implemented on personal kompyuterah.Ada (in honor of the 
Countess Augusta Ada Lovelace - daughter of Lord Byron, written 
with Charles Babbage the first program for the Analytical 
Engine invented yet in 1830) despite a romantic story with the 
title was developed on the instructions of the Ministry of 
Defence SShA.Prednaznachalsya Programming

embedded in military equipment specialized computers, and 
therefore pay tribute to the technical features of 
sistem.Takzhe focused on creating large software 
proektov.Struktura language like Pascal and allows you to 
control parallel computing that protsessy.Poka U.S. Department 
of Defense uses Hell for all software razrabotok.Budushee

Ada on personal computers neopredelenno.Fort (from the English. 
Forth - both forward and Fourth - fourth) - a language for 
solving upravleniya.Segodnyashny Fort virtually impossible to 
classification: interpreter, compiler or operating

system? The main idea of ​​the Fort - based on
source dictionary to define new slova.Vklyuchat them to the 
library and through them define new words and slova.Poslednee

there is a program crucial zadachu.Yadro Fort, ie functions 
that are necessary for initial dialogue with the machine is 
very compact, and the generated texts in the native very 
effektivny.Programmy at Fort hard to read "to the uninitiated, 
and mathematical expressions are not very naglyadnym.Fort 
requires the programmer to perseverance, but also allows you to 
write any program: from video games to a large system, with a 
real-vremeni.Lisp (from the English. Lisp) second after Fortran 
language when talking about vozraste.Lisp representative 
functional language in программирования.Ориентирован dynamic 
data processing, there is no way significant difference between 
data and programming Lisp: the numbers and signs, programs and 
data are lists that allows the programmer to process them 
efficiently, thus the ability to recycle itself. This allows 
the use of Lisp to solve problem for which there is no clear 
algorithm resheniya.Obychno language creates focus on specific 
mashinu.V case for new versions of Lisp were special Lisp 
machines, which corresponds to the structure arhitekruta 
yazyka.Bolshinstvo versions of Lisp acquired features of other 
languages ​​and deviate significantly from "pure" 
Lispa.Ustroystvo language enables new designs we extend that 
Recalls Fort.V mostly Lisp is used for the construction of 
artificial intellekta.Prolog (from the English. PROLOG -

PROgramming in LOGic - logic programming) has appeared as a 
European counterbalance to American Lisp and refers to language 
for creating artificial systems intellekta.Osnovnaya concept of 
language - to translate a logical problem in the text 
programmy.Kompyuter must independently show the result of facts 
and rules, with This does not give the programmer a way 
resheniya.Programmist determines only the objects and relating 
thereto, and Logic svyazi.Kak Lisp does not distinguish between 
data and programmu.Shiroko distributed Turbo Prolog for 
personal computers, but it does not change the property 
ispolnemuyu programmu.Okkam (OCCAM - in honor of the philosopher

William of Ockham, claiming that the concept of irreducible to 
intuitive knowledge and is not verifiable experience, must be 
removed from the Science: "Essence must not be multiplied 
without necessary ") - an example of how software should be for 
technical innovations, designed for use with transputers, ie 
microprocessor based on the use of multiple concurrent 
protsessorov.Okkam divides solution to the parallel proceeding

protsessy.Smoltolk (from the English. Small Talk -
short conversation) can work with
abstract objects that do not have
nothing to do with the technical properties
computer, nor with the classical objects
processing, ie numbers or lettered tsepochkami.Ispolzuetsya in 
artificial intellekta.Takoe same name is interactive 
programming environment, developed by Research Xerox Centre, a 
leading work in the field Artificial intellekta.V concepts

these two languages ​​have ideas that surpass the capabilities 
of modern computers. 

Text packed under "School begins
Programmer "from the magazine" Science and Life "
number of 9.1989 per year.