About the encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius - the IBM/Intel/Microsoft community has huge connections to push hidden advertising.

To those who do not believe that the IBM/Intel/Microsoft community has  
Huge connections for pushing hidden advertising. Read these
articles. Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius (2004). She      
anonymous - the authors of the articles are unknown.                            
                                                                
SINCLAIR (Sinclair) Clive (b. July 30, 1940), English engineer, 
electronics specialist, entrepreneur and     
inventor. Starting in the 1960s with work in technical       
publishing house, Sinclair created a number of companies involved in         
development and application of new technologies for production     
consumer goods - convenient pocket calculators,     
electronic watches, pocket and wrist TVs, as well as    
one of the first home computers. In the late 1970s and early   
1980s became famous for a series of inventions in the field           
semiconductor technologies. He created one of the first          
microprocessors - Z80. In 1981 Sinclair presented his first   
mass-produced microcomputer Z81, the prototype of modern mobile phones     
computers. The Z81 had only 1 KB of memory and was inconvenient to use     
control, but its low price and ease of programming  
attracted hundreds of thousands of buyers. In 1988 Sinclair released      
a fully functional Z88 portable computer that already had 32   
KB of memory withexpandable up to 1 MB. Not all     
Sinclair's projects turned out to be successful. His most famous     
invention - vehicle C5, advertised as  
the embodiment of a new concept of movement. It was small     
three-wheeled vehicle with a streamlined plastic body and         
electric motor. Either because electric batteries
of that time did not have the required power, either due to        
social conservatism, the project failed both in            
technically and commercially. Sinclair continued  
apply your ideas in various fields, focusing on the main ones  
efforts in electric transport. In 1983 for his achievements   
elevated to knighthood.                               
                                                                
ZX Spectrum missed! Isn't it too bad? But they credited the invention of the Z80.  
                                                                
COMPUTER (English computer, from Latin computo - I think), a machine for
receiving, processing, storing and issuing information in electronic 
form that can perceive and perform complex            
sequence of computational operations for a given          
instructions for the program. Since the early 1990s, the term 
replaced the term "electronic computer" (computer),      
which, in turn,replaced the concept in the 1960s        
 (DCM). All these three terms in   
in Russian are considered equivalent. The word  itself   
is a transcription of the English word computer, which means 
calculator. The English concept of  is much broader than    
the concept of "computer" in Russian. In English         
A computer is any device that can produce    
mathematical calculations, up to the slide rule, but   
More often this concept combines all types of computers, such as
analog (see Analog computers), and     
digital. Although computers were created for numerical calculations,   
It turned out that they can process other types of information, 
since almost all types of information can be represented 
in digital form. Computers for processing various information 
are equipped with means for converting it into digital form and  
back. Therefore, using a computer you can not produce      
only numerical calculations, but also work with texts, drawings,  
photographs, video, sound, production management and          
transport, carry out various types of communication. Computers      
have become universal means for processing all types  
information used by humans. Principles of computer operation  
When creating the firstcomputing machines in 1945 by mathematician John  
von Neumann described the basic design of a computer. According to       
According to von Neumann's principles, the computer must have the following         
devices: Arithmetic logic unit - for           
direct implementation of calculations and logical         
operations. Control device - for organizing the process      
program control. Storage device (memory) - for     
storage of programs and information. External devices - for input and
information output. The vast majority of computers in their  
the main features correspond to von Neumann's principles, but the scheme   
The devices of modern computers are somewhat different from      
classical scheme. In particular, arithmetic-logical       
the device and the control device are usually combined into   
central processor. Many fast computers      
carry out parallel data processing on several        
processors. Computer information is stored electronically
in various storage devices called          
computer memory. For long-term storage of information   
permanent computer memory media are used, which   
serve when entering data into a computer and outputting its results
work. To store currently running programs and     
intermediate datathe computer's RAM is used,
which works much faster than permanent media       
memory. Computers use the binary number system,  
which is based on two digits, <0> and <1>. Information of any    
type can be encoded using two digits and       
placed in the computer's RAM or permanent memory.        
Using the binary number system allows you to do      
The computer device is as simple as possible. For the first time the principle      
binary number was formulated in the 17th century by German        
mathematician Gottfried Leibniz. To represent binary digits  
the term bit is used - an abbreviation of the English phrase  
texts, processing of information arrays, watching videos,     
message forwarding). System programs have a special role among    
which are played by the operating system - the program that controls    
computer, running other programs and performing         
service functions during computer operation. Other service       
programs usually perform various auxiliary functions -  
create backup copies of used information, check      
operability of computer devices. Instrumental       
programs (programming systems) that help create
new programs for the computer. Computer types Full range    
modern computing systems can be divided into three large
class: minicomputers andmicrocomputers, mainframes,           
supercomputers. Currently, computing systems       
They are distinguished primarily by functionality. Main
features of minicomputers and microcomputers are bus   
system organization, high standardization of hardware and        
software, targeting a wide range of consumers.   
The microcomputer, or personal computer, appeared in the middle 
1970s. Its price and size were many times smaller than
the most common large computing machines at the time     
machines, and it was designed to work simultaneously with one   
user, whereas large computers tend to       
support the simultaneous operation of many users. For      
Twenty years of development, personal computers have become    
powerful high-performance devices for processing the most     
various types of information that have qualitatively expanded the scope 
application of computers. Modern personal       
computers have almost the same characteristics as        
minicomputers of the 1980s. The power of the microcomputer allows 
use it as a server to organize work      
many personal computers on the network. Personal computers 
produced in stationary (desktop) and portable           
performance. Stationarymicrocomputers in most cases  
consist of a separate system unit in which they are located   
internal devices and components, as well as from individual external      
devices (monitor, keyboard, mouse), without which  
the use of modern computers is unthinkable. When            
requirements for the microcomputer system unit can          
connect additional external devices (printer,      
scanner, speakers, joystick). Portable            
personal computers are best known for notebook computers      
(laptop) performance. The laptop has everything external and internal       
devices are connected in one housing. Same as for            
stationary microcomputer, laptop can be            
additional external devices are connected. There are also 
IBM PC-compatible microcomputers (pronounced IBM PC) and  
IBM PC-incompatible microcomputers. In the late 1990s, IBM  
PC-compatible microcomputers accounted for more than ninety       
percent of the world computer park. The IBM PC was created       
American company IBM (IBM) in August 1981; with him      
creation, the principle of open architecture was applied, which     
means the use in the design when assembling a computer of ready-made 
blocks and devices, as well as standardization of connection methods  
computer devices. Principleopen architecture            
contributed to the widespread adoption of IBM PC-compatible       
clone microcomputers. Many companies took up their assembly,    
which, in conditions of free competition, were able to reduce       
several times the price of microcomputers was vigorously introduced into     
production of the latest technical achievements. Users in   
in turn, got the opportunity to independently               
upgrade your microcomputers and equip them              
additional devices from hundreds of manufacturers. The only one 
from IBM PC-incompatible microcomputers, which received            
relatively widespread - Macintosh computer      
(Macintosh). Since the 1980s, Macintosh microcomputers    
American company Apple were worthy competitors 
IBM PC-compatible microcomputers, since, despite its  
high cost, they provided the user with a clear graphical
interface, were much easier to use and had     
great possibilities. Since the 1990s, the difference between    
The capabilities of Macintoshes and IBM PCs are increasingly leveled out.       
The latter were equipped with operating systems with graphical   
interface (Windows, OS/2), numerous designed for   
them with application programs. Currently Macintosh        
maintain leading positions only fordesktop market          
publishing systems. In the second half of the 1990s, due to  
With the rapid development of global computer networks, a new 
type of personal computer - network computer, which       
intended for use on a computer network only. Network    
The computer does not need its own disk memory or drives.     
He will get the operating system, programs and information from 
networks. It is expected that networked computers will be significantly  
cheaper than desktop personal computers and will gradually replace
them in companies working with specialized applications     
(telephone communication, ticket booking), and in educational   
institutions. Pocket computers are considered a separate type of microcomputer.
computers (electronic organizers, or tablets), small   
devices weighing up to 500 grams and fitting on one hand    
hands. Most Palmtons were not IBM PC compatible     
microcomputers. Only in the late 1990s did pocket
computers with operating systems that allow communication  
information with other types of computers, connect tablets to 
global computer networks. PDAs do not have any   
hard drive or floppy drives. Some of them have           
miniature keyboard, but there are models without a keyboard -       
their operation is controlled by pressingor drawing   
with a special pen directly on the screen. Most common      
Apple handheld computers                          
Hewlett-Packard, Sony, Psion.   
Workstations have evolved from younger models of minicomputers as
transitional view between a microcomputer and a minicomputer. Externally 
they did not differ from stationary microcomputers and over time 
Over time, the difference between them was leveled out. In the 1980s      
terminals were connected to the workstations - individual workers   
places with keyboards and monitors. The terminals allowed          
use workstations for several people. Later on   
one user started working on workstations, and they became   
differ from personal microcomputers only more        
power. Currently, office workstations are called workstations.
personal microcomputers used for intensive      
calculations. This usually involves working with professional scientific and    
engineering application programs, software development    
provision. There are specialized graphic workers  
stations for working with 3D graphics. Minicomputers        
occupy an intermediate position between large computing 
machines and microcomputers. In most cases in           
minicomputers use RISC and UNIX architecture andthey      
play the role of servers to which dozens and hundreds of    
terminals or microcomputers. Minicomputers are used in  
large companies, government and scientific institutions, educational  
institutions, computer centers to solve problems with which  
microcomputers are unable to cope, and for centralized 
storage and processing of large volumes of information. Main    
minicomputer manufacturers are IT&T     
(AT&T), Intel, Hewlett-Packard,       
Digital Equipment. Mainframes are universal, large      
general purpose computers. They occupied the dominant       
positions in the computer market until the 1980s. Initially       
mainframes were designed to handle enormous volumes    
information. The largest manufacturer of mainframes is the company  
IBM (IBM). Mainframes are exceptionally            
reliability, high performance, very high throughput  
ability of information input and output devices. They can   
connect thousands of terminals or microcomputers           
users. Mainframes are used by the largest corporations,
government agencies, banks. With flourishing           
microcomputers and minicomputer systems the meaning of mainframes 
decreased. However, IBM (IBM) moved to           
production of computers based on a new conceptual architecture    
ESA/390, which allows the use of mainframes as   
center of a heterogeneous computing complex. Cost       
mainframes are relatively high: one computer with a package       
application programs are valued at least a million dollars.     
Despite this, they are actively used in the financial sector and  
defense complex, where they occupy from 20 to 30 percent         
computer park, since the use of mainframes for      
centralized storage and processing of a sufficiently large      
volume of information is cheaper than maintenance           
distributed data processing systems consisting of hundreds and    
thousands of personal computers. Supercomputers are needed for  
working with applications that require at least performance
hundreds of billions of floating point operations per second. So 
Huge amounts of computation are needed to solve problems in           
aerodynamics, meteorology, high energy physics, geophysics.  
Supercomputers have also found their application in the financial sector.  
processing large volumes of transactions on exchanges. They are distinguished by high 
the cost is from fifteen million dollars, so the decision to 
the purchase of such machines is often accepted by the state      
level, a system for trading used supercomputers has been developed.
History of the computerThe history of the computer is closely related to  
attempts to facilitate and automate large volumes           
calculations. Even simple arithmetic operations with large     
numbers are difficult for the human brain. Therefore, already in   
In ancient times, the simplest calculating device appeared - the abacus. B     
In the seventeenth century, the slide rule was invented       
facilitating complex mathematical calculations. In 1642 Blaise Pascal 
designed an eight-bit adding mechanism. Two        
centuries later in 1820 the Frenchman Charles de Colmar created          
an adding machine capable of multiplying and dividing. This one     
The device has firmly taken its place on accounting tables. All     
the basic ideas that underlie the operation of computers were  
outlined back in 1833 by the English mathematician Charles Babbage. He
developed a design for a machine to perform scientific and technical   
calculations, where he predicted the basic devices of modern       
computer and its tasks. For data input and output       
Babbage proposed using punched cards - sheets of thick    
paper with information printed using holes. At that time 
Punch cards were already used in the textile industry.     
Such a machine had to be controlled by software 
way. Babbage's ideas began to actually come to life at the end  
19th century. In 1888American engineer Herman Hollerith            
designed the first electromechanical calculating machine. This   
a machine called a tabulator could read and sort    
statistical records encoded on punched cards. In 1890    
Hollerith's invention was first used in the 11th          
American Census. A job that's five hundred        
employees performed for seven years, Hollerith did with 43  
assistants on 43 tabulators in one month. In 1896 Herman      
Hollerith founded the Computing Tabulating Recording Company,  
which became the basis for the future International Business Machines      
(International Business Machines Corporation, IBM) - companies,  
made a gigantic contribution to the development of world computer        
technology. Further developments in science and technology allowed in the 1940s 
years to build the first computers. In February 1944 at 
one of the IBM enterprises (IBM) in collaboration with scientists  
Harvard University commissioned the US Navy to create a machine 
. It was a monster weighing about 35 tons.  was      
based on the use of electromechanical relays and operated  
decimal numbers encoded on punched tape. The car could
manipulate numbers up to 23 digits long. For non-multiplication  
two 23-bit numbers she needed four seconds. But   
electromechanical relaysdidn't work fast enough. Therefore  
already in 1943 the Americans began developing an alternative option
- a computer based on electron tubes. In 1946 there was 
The first electronic computer ENIAC was built. Ee weight
was 30 tons, it required 170 square meters to accommodate  
meters of area. Instead of thousands of electromechanical parts ENIAC  
contained 18 thousand vacuum tubes. The machine counted in binary   
system and performed five thousand addition operations or three hundred   
multiplication operations per second. Vacuum tube machine      
worked significantly faster, but the vacuum tubes themselves often   
were out of order. To replace them in 1947, Americans John Bardeen, 
Walter Brattain and William Bradford Shockley suggested using 
the stable non-switching semiconductor devices they invented     
elements are transistors. Improving the first samples        
computing machines led to the creation of the computer in 1951       
UNIVAC, intended for commercial use. UNIVAC
became the first mass-produced computer, and its first     
a copy was submitted to the US Census Bureau. With active 
The introduction of transistors in the 1950s is associated with the birth of the second 
generation of computers. One transistor was capable of replacing 40 
electronic tubes. As a result, the speed of the machines increased by  
10 times with significantreduction in weight and size. B           
computers began to use storage devices made from magnetic
cores capable of storing a large amount of information. In 1959 
integrated circuits (chips) were invented, in which everything   
electronic components along with conductors were placed inside  
silicon wafer. The use of chips in computers allows  
reduce current paths during switching, and speed   
calculations increases tenfold. Significantly reduced and  
car dimensions. The appearance of the chip marked the birth       
third generation of computers. By the early 1960s, computers
are widely used for processing large quantities      
statistical data, scientific calculations, solutions   
defense tasks, creation of automated control systems. 
High price, complexity and high cost of servicing large      
computers have limited their use in many    
spheres. However, the process of computer miniaturization made it possible in 1965
American company Digital Equipment to release a minicomputer    
PDP-8 priced at 20 thousand dollars, which made the computer affordable
for medium and small commercial companies. In 1970 employee    
Intel Edward Hoff created the first microprocessor        
placing several integrated circuits on one silicon  
crystal. This is revolutionarythe invention radically revolutionized
the idea of computers as bulky and heavy      
monsters. Microcomputers appear with the microprocess -         
fourth generation computers that can fit on      
user's desk. In the mid-1970s they began 
Attempts are being made to create a personal computer -     
computer intended for private             
user. In the second half of the 1970s,        
the most successful examples of microcomputers from the American company Apple
(Apple), but personal computers are widespread     
received with the creation of the model in August 1981 by IBM (IBM).
IBM PC microcomputer. Application of the principle of open            
architecture, standardization of core computing devices and   
methods of combining them led to the mass production of clones  
IBM PC, widespread use of microcomputers throughout the world. 
Over the last decades of the 20th century, microcomputers have made      
significant evolutionary path, have increased their      
speed and volumes of unprocessed information, but         
finally displace minicomputers and large computing  
systems - mainframes they could not. Moreover, the development of large
computing systems led to the creation of a supercomputer -      
super-productive and super-expensivemachine capable          
calculate a model of a nuclear explosion or a major earthquake. 
At the end of the 20th century, humanity entered the stage of formation     
global information network that can unite     
capabilities of various computer systems.                      
                                                                
This article is missing not only the ZX Spectrum, but also the Commodore 64,
and “Altair” is not named (although it is he who is implied - not      
those in the know will think that some kind of development is meant here  
ubiquitous IBM, but this is not true).                                 
Lie #1: "The only IBM PC-incompatible microcomputer
relatively widespread - computer    
Macintosh."                                          
Lie #2:  (which was put first because it has
relation to IBM) is not the first computer, the first was created by Konrad Zuse.   
Lie #3: UNIVAC is not the first serial computer, the first again       
created by Zuse. This can be seen from another article from the same encyclopedia:
                                                                
Zuse (Zuse) Conrad, German engineer, creator of one of the first 
electromechanical computers. Since childhood I loved Zuse  
invent and build. While still at school, he created a machine for      
money exchange. In 1934, while a studenttechnical university,      
began to create a universal computing machine,       
which would be programmable and could solve the problems of any    
difficulty level. At that time Zuse knew nothing about the works      
Babbage and Boole. In 1938 Zuse collected at home         
electromechanical machine Z1. The machine had a keyboard for entering
tasks and a panel with lights on which the result was displayed. 
Zuse then replaced the inconvenient printing device with           
punched paper tape, which I made from old 35mm film,
and called the new model Z2. When the war began, Zuse received    
support from the German government for the development of a computer for
military purposes - designing aircraft and missiles. In 1941, on   
two years ahead of Aiken, Zuse created the third model - Z3,       
based on electromechanical relays and operating in binary  
number system. Z3 consisted of 600 counter relays and
2000 memory device relays. Numbers could be  in      
memory and  from there via electrical signals, 
which passed through the relay. The relays were either passing the signal or 
didn't let us through. The machine read the program mechanically step by step    
step (linearly) and carried out from 15 to 20 computational operations 
per second. At the same time, Zuse began building the Z4, in      
which all mechanical parts had to bereplaced by     
electronic tubes. During the bombing of Berlin, all Zuse cars   
except Z4, died. In the post-war years, Zuse, having no funds,
no way to continue working on the computer, I came up with      
an effective way to program computers - a system       
numerical and symbolic notations built on the basis of logic.
It was not until 1949 that Zuse began commercial production.         
Z4 based computers. Zuse created a programming system 
which he called "Plankalkul" (Plankalkul - planning          
calculus), suitable for solving a variety of problems, including 
sorting numbers and performing arithmetic in binary
records (other computers of that time worked in decimal    
system). Zuse wrote 49 pages of program fragments on        
, which allowed the computer to evaluate chess 
positions. Many ideas of a systematic logical language remained
unknown to a whole generation of computer specialists      
linguistics. Even after visiting the US in the late 1940s, Zuse 
published only a small part of his work. Only in    
1972 Zuse's work was published in its entirety. This publication made me  
specialists to think about what impact could have   
, if only it had been widely known earlier.Independently of them [von Neumann and others] in 1945 K. Zuse        
(K.Zuse) in Germany developed a sorting program using the     
simple insertion. This was one of the simplest examples of the operation
with linear lists in the language he developed "Plankalku"l".    
[D. Knut. The art of programming - vol.3, p.415]               
                                                                
Here is another quote (IBM article):                            
In 1980, IBM management made a revolutionary decision to create 
personal computer. During its design, it was used  
the principle of open architecture: its components were          
universal, which made it possible to upgrade the computer according to      
parts.                                                         
                                                                
1. This applies to any multi-platform computer,             
graduated both earlier and later. In other words, IBM simply doesn't
managed to drive her coffin onto one board, as many did   
competitors, and now portrays it as a “revolutionary solution.”
2. “Upgrading a computer piece by piece” even allowed          
"Altair".                                                      
                                                                
And here's more (from the same place):The introduction of the IBM PC in 1981 created an avalanche-like demand for        
personal computers, which have now become tools of labor     
people of various professions.                                   
                                                                
And here's another:                                                      
COMPUTER GAME, a technical game in which the playing field     
is computer controlled or displayed on a screen     
display. Most of these programs are developed for       
IBM-compatible personal computers                        
                                                                
For this lie, the authors took advantage of the fact that in Russia there is almost no  
familiar with huge arrays of games for numerous models    
game consoles and slot machines.                          
                                                                
There are NO articles about Commodore and Nintendo in this encyclopedia AT ALL  
(about IBM, Lotus, Intel, Microsoft, Symantec - yes, and           
rather big). The article about the Internet is huge, the article about Fido     
missing.