Inferno #09 31 июля 2006

Likbez - Common techniques incorrect reasoning and simple logic errors.

         Common techniques

        incorrect reasoning

                 and just

            logical fallacies



   Excerpt from the text entitled "Rasp
rostranennye techniques incorrectly argues
tion "accidentally hit me in Fido. I am
asked him to send me a text as a whole. It turned
It turned out that this book (compiled by his
did not sign) is highly flawed. To cha
STI techniques had not been given explanations and
mers, and some of the available examples
 were clearly not in the subject.

   I found a similar English-language pages.
The best of them (but still unfinished):

 http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/

                         mathew / logic.html
 http://www.csun.edu/ ~ dgw61315 /

                            fallacies.html



   I wrote out there missing, corrected
examples, added their comments and more
several stages. In addition, the kit
to this directory, I have made 12 receptions
Karel Capek, adding to this classic with
measures taken from the works of Fomenko.

Alone Coder


                  Accent


   Offset stress (accent) in a word or
in a phrase. Example: "Most" -> "BO
Most of the ".


                  Ad hoc


   Explanation of the events retroactively. Such
explanation is not suitable for further from
events is the same species. Example: "I was healed
from cancer. "-" Praise the Lord, then. He
is your healer. "-" So, will He heal others
who have cancer? "-" Er ... The ways of God
are mysterious. "


      Affirmation of the consequent


   Adoption of the type "A implies B, B is true,
therefore, A is true. "Meets edge
yne frequently (for example, Nemo: letter 246
"Who robbed KANO", p.4).


                Amphibolia

                Ambiguitas


   Ambiguity in the wording. Klas
The classical example: "ajo te, Aecida, Romanos
vincere posse "(Enn ap. C), where, with the elimination
Niemi last point, the victory proved to be
tsya both Eakidom, and for the Romans.
Another example: "Belief in God fills a muchneeded gap".


            Anecdotal evidence


   Link to the rumors. Example: "There's abun
dant proof that God exists and is still
performing miracles today. Just last week
I read about a girl who was dying of can
cer. Her whole family went to church and
prayed for her, and she was cured ". (In the present
Mr. example, present and Affirmation of
the consequent.)


        Argumentum ad antiquitatem


   The type argument "It has been known since ancient
large times and, therefore, can not be
incorrect. "Oppose Argumentum
ad novitatem.


          Argumentum ad baculum


   Argument from a position of strength. Example:
"Those who do not believe, will burn in hell."


          Argumentum ad crumenam


   Money criterion of trust (counterfield
wives Argumentum ad lazarum). Example: "Bill
Gates could not earn as much, if
have been wrong. "


    Argumentum ad hominem (Option A)


   Go to the personality. Example: "Do you approve
zhdaesh that atheists - are decent people.
But I know that you left his wife and children. "(In
Reference anonymity is an option 1a). This
argument is invalid because the truth of the races
judgments does not depend on who it izla
reaches. Depend on the person uttering
can develop that credibility svidetels
Twa.

   More examples (from an anonymous - option 2):
"The animals can be killed for food. And not capable
PbTe, while on your feet Leather shoes. "
"Of course, you do not agree that racism - is
bad. You're white. "


    Argumentum ad hominem (option b)


   Finding easily criticized a person has
yuschego similar view (cf. Argumen
tum ad verecundiam). Example: "You are asserting
eat, that the death penalty - it was good. Git
ler and Stalin fully agree with you
would. "To this we can argue that Hitler and
Stalin, for example, thought that must go
feet and hands to write, and what is their opinion
does not discredit these methods ho
dby and letters.


        Argumentum ad ignorantiam


   The assertion that something exists, yet
contrary is proved. Example: "Telepathy
exists. No one has proven otherwise
th. "Some debaters are confused and erroneous
but reject the assertion: "Something absence
exists until proven otherwise. "And the difference
significant: in fact, to prove the presence
Chia is sufficient to give one example, for
prove the absence of needed transition
take the entire universe.


          Argumentum ad lazarum


   Argument to the poverty line (the opposite of Ar
gumentam ad crumenam). Example: "Monks are
more likely to possess insight into the
meaning of life, as they have given up the
distractions of wealth ". Another example:
"Microsoft is too greedy to be Sanchez
tnym.


          Argumentum ad logicam


   The statement that something is wrong, because
given false evidence. This is a bug
because there are false evidence
assertion. For example: "Take
16/64.Sokratim six in the numerator and
denominator. What?? You say that so-juice
raschat not? But 16/64 is 1 / 4, not
why would you argue with that?? "


       Argumentum ad misericordiam


   Argument to pity. Example: "Think of
all the poor, starving Ethiopian children!
How could we be so cruel as not to help
them? ". Here he ignores the questions about
fact that the problem is causes of hunger, and how
What would have to sacrifice for the implementation of
program.


          Argumentum ad nauseam


   Repeat statements instead of
prove it.


         Argumentum ad novitatem


   The argument for novelty (the opposite of Ar
gumentum ad antiquitatem). Example: "Windows
XP - the new system, and hence it
better than Windows 98. "


          Argumentum ad numerum


   Assume that something is good or right, by
Since it has many adherents. Example:
"You have not yet bought a mobile phone? All
normal people have a cell phone. "
Another example: "Thousands of people believe in the power peaks
pyramids. It means that something in it. "


          Argumentum ad populum


   An appeal to the people. Example: "Millions of
vindous enjoy and consider it the steering wheel
way. Stating otherwise, you are insulting millions
Millions of people. "Close to Argumentum ad nu
merum.


        Argumentum ad verecundiam


   Apellyatsiya to the authority. Example: "Newton
was a great physicist, but he believed in God. "Another
Example: "Bill Gates himself enjoys Vindou
Som. Do you think such a man as he would
use mastdaem?. "method of reasoning
similar to option "b" Argumentum ad homi
nem.


               Bifurcation


   Accounting for only the n alternatives (usually two,
or even one), although there is m> n al
Ternate.


         Circulus in demonstrando


   Vicious circle. Adoption of being proved
approval for granted. Example: "God
is because it is written in the Bible. Bee
bliya true, because it is the Word of God. "


             Complex question

         Fallacy of interrogation

        Fallacy of presupposition


   The classic example: "You stopped beating
your father? ". The question requires a certain
On the answer to another question, which was not
specified. At trial, are often used questions
type: "Where you put the stolen money?"


          Fallacy of composition


   The assumption that the meeting has
properties of its members (cf. Fallacy of
division). Example: "Every grain in a heap
weighs almost nothing. Consequently, a lot of
too little weight. "


            Converse accident

           Hasty generalization


   Inferring a general rule, private
case. Example: Bill Gates bogach.Sledova
Hence, all programmers rich. "


         Converting a conditional


   Treatment implication. Error type "If
A, B, and hence, if B, then A ". In
measures: "If this is a herring, it's fish. Consequently,
Consequently, if a fish, it is herring. "
Virtually the same thing Affirmation of the
consequent.


         Cum hoc ergo propter hoc


   Adoption of the type "A occurred simultaneously
simultaneously with B; mean, A was due to B "
(Without explaining the mechanism of action and
of statistics). Special case of error
Non causa pro causa.


        Denial of the antecedent


   Adoption of the type "A implies B, A is false,
hence B is false ". Example:" Since
Since the Lord did not come to me when I prayed,
therefore, it is not. "Close to Affirma
tion of the consequent.


            Dicto simpliciter


   The general rule (statistics) is declared
true for any particular case. Example:
"Programmers hate Windows. You prog
rammist therefore you hate Vin
Daws. "Another example:" You are studying at a
rich college. Therefore you must be rich ".
Close to the Fallacy of division.


           Fallacy of division


   The assumption that the parts have their
properties of the whole (sr.Fallacy of composition).
Example: "The car weighs a hell of sand
how many tons. Hence, these grains of sand scary
heavy. "


               Equivocation


   The use of a statement of time
personal meanings of a word or phrase.
Example: "Father, even the Dean referred to the
The Law on Freedom of Religion "... for
freedom of the Orthodox faith triangle
buetsya ban construction inoverche
skih temples "(A. Neverovsky. From the" peace
atom - to the militant orthodoxy? -
Express-Chronicle, 05/04/1995).


           The extended analogy


   Extended analogy. The assertion that
two different situations are similar, and concluded
by analogy.


            Ignoratio elenchi

          Irrelevant conclusion


   When he instead proves
vat my point of view, proves something
drugoe.Primer: "The Christian doctrine is true,
because the church helps many people. "Near
to a Non sequitur, Red herring and Straw man.


         The Natural Law fallacy


   "What is natural is good." Example:
"Predators devour each other. That's the law
prirody.To as do people in the capitalist
Český society. That is the law of nature. "


      "No True Scotsman ..." fallacy


   Example: "No true Scotsman is not
puts sugar in porridge. - Yes, but my friend Mack
Mack ...- I said: No real sho
tlandets!


           Non causa pro causa


   An event B is declared reason
Noah events A, without explaining the mechanism
action and to bring statistics. Options
this error: Cum hoc ergo propter hoc, Post
hoc ergo propter hoc. Explanations and statistical
Tiki is not enough if others are known
hypotheses about the causes of the events A - in
this case should be compared plausible
collection of all hypotheses (see Bifurcation).


               Non sequitur


   Rely on the questionable derivation and
unspoken assumptions. Example: "Racism is
wrong. Therefore, we need affirmative acti
on ". Saying this, he implies that
Racism is everywhere, that the action will reduce racism
and that no other alternatives but to her
conduct. Principle Audiatur et altera pars
required to disclose all the assumptions and thus
avoiding mistakes Non sequitur.


            Petitio principii


   Misleading premise. Example: "Green
nkie kidnap people every week. Government
The proof is nothing against it does not.
Consequently, the government in collusion with
greenbacks. "


         Plurium interrogationum


   Requirement of simple answers to complex
question. Example: "Are higher taxes an impe
diment to business or not? Yes or no? "


        Post hoc ergo propter hoc


   The assertion that the two following each
other events causally connected (without a Listing
sneniya mechanism of action and bring
statistics). Example: "I turned on the computer,
and then an earthquake. Investigator
but the earthquake caused by the inclusion of comput
following text. "A special case of error Non causa
pro causa.


               Red herring


   Avoiding the topic. Example: "You may claim
that the death penalty is an ineffective
deterrent against crime - but what about
the victims of crime? How do you think
surviving family members feel when they
see the man who murdered their son kept in
prison at their expense? Is it right that
they should pay for their son's murderer
to be fed and housed? ".


               Reification

             Hypostatization


   The substitution of the abstract concept of an object.
Example: "You say that Jack Potro
shitele contained zlo.Pokazhite I object
called "evil" and where Jack
Ripper it is. "


       Shifting the burden of proof


   The assumption of the truth of statements, while
opponent can not prove otherwise. Example: "OK,
so if you don't think the grey aliens have
gained control of the US government, can
you prove it? ". This is a special case Argume
ntum ad ignorantiam.


       The slippery slope argument


   The assertion that one adverse event
causes other analogichnye.Naprimer: "Es
whether to legalize marijuana, increased perspiration
sumption of heroin. "If he could
give the reasons why it is so (for example:
"After the legalization of marijuana, many people
may decide that drugs are not so harmful
Ny), then it would not be a mistake.


                Straw man


   Modifying the position of the interlocutor, op
roverzhenie modified position and Zach
lyuchenie that refuted the original position.


                Tu quoque


   Adoption of the admissibility of the action on
Based on the commission by his opponent. This
special case of Argumentum ad hominem.


   Fallacy of the Undistributed Middle

       "A is based on B" fallacies

      "... Is a type of ..." fallacies


   Finding analogies in the two subjects and
announcement of one kind of object
another. Example: "Islam is based on faith,
Christianity is based on faith, so isn't
Islam a form of Christianity? ".


            The appeal to memory


   Something that the opponent do not remember a Listing
S THE nonexistent. Example: "All of this
your great ancient Greece - the only
Two generations at Pericles. "appeal to
memory is useful in an oral debate.


                Association


   The use of assertions in which
some names or terms are replaced by
similar.


              False Link


   The argument given propositional
of citing a source where Nitsche
of the kind. To complicate verification
often refer to hard-to-source
nicks or on a vast array of data targets
com.


              False interpretation


   Known word, term, name or
expression that declares the language originated from
ka, the dictionary is not always a
hand (Arabic, Chinese, Old Turk,
Sumerian ...). Often used for at
EMA "implication."


              Pceudosources


   Reference to the source, seen in frequent
publication of false information. Eg
measures on television, in Komsomolskaya Pra
VDU, to NA Morozov.


              Implication


   The word A search for "hidden meanings" B
(Usually on the similarity of sound - the so-called
ferred "false etymology) and in the future
argument A and B are used interchangeably
equate, in each case selected comfortable
speaker. This technique liked to use
above Nemo.