(C) Evgeny Shcherbatyuk '96 (W) Filosof '97 A look back. Peshkarus - a means or method of re- movement based on moving the lower extremities problems, requires a lot experience (at least one year of experience) uneven) At the end of the 50s, computers rooted in research centers and universities, financial and statistical tistical departments of banks and large correspondents portions. Researchers and manufacturers numbering machines made efforts to to programming computers became lighter, and they themselves became more powerful. The emergence of high-level languages is mainly solved the problem of the complexity of the program mization and made it available for shi- a large circle of engineers and scientists cov. Enthusiasts, especially at universities and colleges, looked for new perspectives use of computers, trained to work with them students,in a word, they did what would- necessary to make predictions about a brilliant future and invaluable knowledge knowledge of computer technology. One of the obstacles that stood in their way way, there was a batch processing system programs. Those who had to work for large machines of the single series (EU), know and remember what it is. I suspect For most of our readers, batch processing botka is known by hearsay. Therefore, allow please remember your youth and talk about she probably has more than she deserves. Batch processing is brought to life by the then for economic reasons. Calculator- complexes were very expensive, and for they developed a system that allows run more than one program on one machine at a time, but a whole package of programs. Of course programs were still executed sequentially but, but this made it possible to more completely zag- power up the central processor using juice Increased downtime during I/O. This batch processing looked like this: Requirement of specialists in system programming Vania. Ordinary programmers saw it as completely different. Firstly, access to a computer Yuteru was strictly limited. We wrote programs and checked them ten times - what can you do, our time was much less better than a computer. Then they rewrote block letters textprograms with development valuable leaves on special forms, which were handed over to the punching room. Girls punch card operators translated the program text on punch cards, at times performing any mental errors and unimaginable typos. To be fair, it should be noted that the number of perforation errors was often Fewer programming errors. Ready stacks of punched cards with programs handed over to operators for testing. Via for some time, at best after an hour, at worst a day later, it was possible pick up the results. The fruits of the first program there have always been long lists of mistakes forations, typos and incorrect designs programming language. Cycle (manual operation) the one with the text - perforation - run) pulled - fight to the bitter end and could last a week - mi. Our CPU usage schedule th time, according to which pro- our programs were launched, I wrote for a month forward. Very often it was impossible to spend run only to ensure that the compiler made mistakes instead of you. Therefore we prefer read manually run the source text, posing as a computer than spending precious computer time to search for trivi- errors that are inherently natural. This was done so, taking a simplified, but quite complete set of initial data, we manually run program by executing one statement at a time torus, line byline. The first thing a programmer learned to write this carefully in block letters and cross out the sign well- la, so that it differs from the letter "O". Yes the number of perforation errors was reduced. The method deserves a separate paragraph storing programs on punched cards. One the punched card contained one line (80 characters) comet) of the text. Each character of the line was represented by a combination of punches according to corresponding column of the punched card. Slightly having become proficient in handling program cards mysts began to read the text on cards punching and correcting text in the program, manually sealing some punches and cutting through new. The goal was to speed up work by saving time on contacting front-line photo card makers. Occasionally it was possible to penetrate to the processing room and be present in person when running the program, then from the skill "to fly" edit cards depended on how many times you will be able to skip the program in half an hour machine time. Now imagine how shocked The solution was to drop and scatter the punched cards programs, how much effort it took to collect them again. A person who cannot read symbols ly on the code punching of the cards, it was I can't do it in general. He was forced again give the program for perforation and lose it days. Suppose the text of this article is encrypted written in simple code, cut intolines, which are then mixed. Who's sane mind will undertake to collect it, laying it down pieces in order? We took it. That's how it was easier and faster. The second lesson, teaching living as a programmer, learned numbers put cards in the deck. It's really not a spa. lard when two decks crumbled (and more lee), so that for many it became a habit mark the name of the program on each card, number the cards and sign the punched one them text. I still remember the face of the newcomer - ka, who received text on the perforation his first program, he asked cheerfully: "Who's with me in the punch cards?", dashingly shuffled shoved the deck and suddenly realized what he had done ril. Yes, it's nice to take a break, but it's time to come back leaving the Soviet Union in the late 70s - early 80s in the United States of America late 50s early 60s. Members of the Faculty of Mathematics Dart- Muth College Thomas Kurts and John Cal- I received my doctorates from Prince Ton University. Kurtz met computers in 1951 at a course in California Forni University. Kameni participated in the creation of the atomic bomb in 1945, and his mentor was von Neumann himself. After war Kameni worked at the Princeton Institute here are promising research assistants volume with Albert Einstein and finished his doctoratetorantura. In 1953 he was offered to head the mathematics department of Dart Smoot College in New Hampshire. The closest place is where Kurtz and Kameni could work with their programs, was MIT (MIT), located 215 kilometers away. Kurtz, who usually took programs to MIT, became a regular on the train and fully suffered from batch processing. Kameni I dreamed of installing a computer in Dartsmouth, but I couldn’t imagine how to teach programming of colleagues and employees, es- will the process remain so daunting? yushnyh. In 1954, the college acquired a small machine LGP-30 and Kurtz headed the computing litelny center. Over how many years Kurtz and Kameni developed simple languages to work on your car. The case when one of the junior year students, not previously dealt with computers, developed DART language, finally convinced them that ra- all students can use a bot with a computer there. The idea is to train students to work in computer practically, and not in lectures, and regardless of their specialization I found support from the college administration. After you have previously been imbued with chatting about the everyday life of batch processing programs, no lengthy explanation is required ny why she became an obstacle on the way communionstudents to the computer. Math- tics, physicists, engineers "charms" of pa- chum treatment was not deterred, they were already understood the value of computer computing. Scientists and students of the humanities they simply couldn’t believe the specialties, that computer data processing is capable bring them results whose meanings would be worth all the ordeals of batch processing ki, and avoided the computer. First of all, Kurtz and Kameni decided deal with batch processing. They planned to use the partition system time theory, first proposed at MIT. The essence of the division is as follows. To the central connected to the computer processor how many terminals equipped with alphabet but-numeric keypad. Central pro- processor controlled by the corresponding program frame, in turn connected to each terminal for a few milliseconds. Perek- emergence occurs very quickly, and in humans century, it seems that he is the only Manages the computer skillfully. According to the plan of Kurtz and Kameni, it was necessary make a programming language so simple so that "students can use teach it after three hours of classes.” On the roles of the operators were outlined to be simple and English content words, such as PRINT, SAVE thread) and so on. During the development of new th languagenew ideas were born. Assuming It was lost that students working in the system with time sharing, they will recruit themselves program texts, enter and receive rep- results. This is how the idea of interactive activity of programs, that is, that During its execution, a program can and must conduct a dialogue, interact with programmer or user. Another on- the generalized numeric data type has become popular nykh, with a single internal representation, when almost any use of numbers in mulah turned out to be correct - unlike from Fortran. The new language was called BASIC. BASIC is Beginners All-Purpose Symbolic Code (general purpose symbolic code for beginners). In 1963, Kemeny began development BASIC language compiler. To two students was tasked with creating an operating system with time sharing for General machines Electric 225 and Datanet-30, acquisition which became possible thanks to subsidies National Science Foundation and discount, provided by General Electric. May 1 1964 at 4 am in the basement Dartmouth College Kemeny with associates stood at the teletypes used in the ro- terminals, and filled in programs. Kemeny recalled: “We have repeatedly pro- did a similar operation, but precisely in that time everything worked.At the same time, birth there were both the BASIC language and the division system time." Soon, most large organizations nizations used the system in their work time sharing. True, they used not BASIC, but other programming languages niy. Need I say how popular it is? BASIC these days? According to some sources, they owns more people than all others programming languages combined. One of the "breeding grounds" of passion for computers is The yuters had the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ky institute. At MIT there was a student club of technical railway mo- division. One group of students made was making layouts of the area, and the other was electric filling for them. Enthusiasts from among the latter with fanatical zeal spent hours editing, improving and remakes of the land of toy trains. They have developed their own jargon, so setup or repair was called “kneading” the appa- ratures. Work that brings nothing me pleasures, as well as rude jokes, were called "hack". Those who are interested in it was, like the troublesome students, called "hackers". Hit comp- yuter was only in sight of the hackers a matter of time. While the computer center was dominated batch processing, their access to the machinewas very limited. Everything changed when In 1958, a small machine appeared at MIT TX-0. It was built on transistors and in addition, it had an excellent electron beam howl monitor, playback device sound and even a light pen that can was to draw on the monitor screen. The main thing is it did not have a batch processing system, the man entered the punched tape with the program and I got results immediately. For students allowed to work on TX-0 when it was free. Maniac programmers began to create amazing things. desa. One made the computer play Bach, the other is to convert numbers from Arabic forms of recording in Roman. Hacker-teacher tel created a computer game in which you had to navigate the maze with your mouse and collect pieces of cheese. In another version game cheese was replaced by martini and as while passing the maze, the gait of the mouse becomes curled less and less solid. Soon another computer appeared at MIT ter: PDP-1. PDP-1 was a harbinger of mi- no-computers. Kenneth Olsen, graduate MIT realized that there was a need for computers of less power (and cost) and founded the company that released PDP. In PDP hackers fell in love at first sight. The most an exciting game written by professor Marvin Minsky, who studiedartificial intelligence. With the help of three light spots on the screen could be build swirls, roses and geometric figures gurs. Among the hackers who are captivated by the new game, Roy, there was Stephen Russell, a big fan science fiction, second-rate action films and computer Yuters. Taking as a basis the program of the Minsk- go, he gave free rein to his passions and did game called "Space Wars". Two players controlled spaceships and tried to hit each other with missiles, watching the progress of the battle on the monitor. Russell suggested that his hacker friends improve their improve the program, what they are accepted for were delighted. One of them was built into game astronomical tables, and now it passed against the backdrop of the equatorial star- th sky. In 24 hours the screen changed 365 starry nights. Another hacker entered program taking into account the gravity of the Sun and planets. Apart from food breaks, Russell and friends played non-stop. For more- for convenience, they did what can be called to be the “grandfather” of the modern joystick. Not stopping the games, you could get up from your chair and stretch your legs by walking around the room with panel of buttons and switches in hand- kah. Hackers have their own ethics. All programs, including the game "Mouse in the Labyrinth" rinte" and "Space Wars", were considered public domain. Copies of programsits spread freely through the informal kersky network throughout the United States. Nobody was not concerned about copyright issues, because the commercial value of the program had no idea. The situation will soon change elk, huge profits were made from the programs status, the issue of copyright and piracy Twa stood up very sharply. But the original movement of hackers, people selflessly and selfishly passionate about computers, still exists, although it has noticeably thinned out, and the word "hacker", at the suggestion of software sellers provision has become abusive.
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